Part 1
Questions 1-13 A river reveals its Roman past
A river reveals its Roman past
2,000 years ago the town of Arles, in what is now south-western France, was a busy gateway to the area of the Roman Empire known as Gaul. Goods from all over the Mediterranean were transferred there to barges -- long, shallow riverboats -- then pulled up the Rhône river to supply the northern half of the great empire. Today, Arles is a small, quiet place, and the Rhône is polluted and mostly ignored.
Archaeologist Luc Long is a native of Arles. He had already worked on sunken ships all over the Mediterranean when, in 1986, a friend persuaded him to dive for the first time in his home river. Long reluctantly agreed. The two men entered the river on a chilly November morning, when the water was around 8°C, thick, cloudy and foul smelling. They could see no more than a metre ahead through the murky water. At a depth of about six metres, Long saw a sunken truck. To his surprise, he discovered an ancient Roman jar -- known as an amphora -- on the driver’s seat. These containers were used throughout the Roman Empire to transport olive oil, fish sauce, and other products. When empty, they would simply be discarded. Within a short time the divers found themselves swimming over a vast field of amphorae. Long had never seen so many intact ones, and he has been mapping this Roman rubbish dump ever since.
For the first 20 years or so, no one paid much attention to what Long was doing. When, in 2004, one of his colleagues came across a 34-metre long Roman barge, Long doubted that there would ever be enough money available to raise it. In 2007, Long handed over the study of this wreck -- which he named Arles-Rhône 3 -- to three younger archaeologists, and continued his survey of the rest of the dump, around 50 metres upstream. This was where he started finding pieces of the Roman town of Arles, including statues. Word began to leak out. The French customs police warned Long that antiquities thieves might be watching his operation. So when his divers found a two-metre statue of the god Neptune, they brought it to the surface at night.
Before the diving season was over, divers had discovered a rare marble bust of the Roman emperor Julius Caesar. An exhibition was built around the statue, and news of it spread around the world. ‘The exhibition’s success was astonishing,’ said Claude Sintes, director of Arles’ local antiquities museum, where the exhibition was held. ‘When a modest town like ours got 400,000 visitors, the politicians understood that the economic return was strong.’ By the autumn of 2010, the Caesar exhibition was nearing its end, and those same politicians were looking for more culture to invest in, because the European Union had designated the region around Arles a 2013 European Capital of Culture. Suddenly nine million euros became available to build a new wing on the museum and put a Roman barge into it. There was just one problem. The project would need to be completed by 2013. That meant the barge needed to be extracted by the end of the diving season in 2011. This was because although the wood of the boat had suffered no microbial decay, water had filled its cells, leaving the whole structure soft and spongy. If that were to evaporate, the boat would collapse. The solution was to bathe the wood for months in a polymer called polyethylene glycol, then freeze-dry it in small sections -- gradually infusing it with the polymer before extracting the water. The process would take nearly two years.
So there was only one diving season to extract the boat from the Rhône. ‘We thought the project was doomed to fail,’ said Benoît Poinard, a professional diver and the site foreman. Normally, Poinard explained, the Rhône is safe for diving only from late June to October; otherwise the current is too strong. Three or four months would not be enough to excavate Arles-Rhône 3. Then 2011 arrived. It hardly snowed in the Alps that winter; that spring it barely rained. The Rhône’s current was so gentle that the team got in the water by early May. The team worked straight into November, losing only a single week to bad weather -- and completed the job. ‘Two hours after we finished,’ Poinard said, ‘the Rhône became undiveable for the whole winter.’
When Arles-Rhône 3 sank, it was carrying 33 tons of stone for building work. It had come from a quarry just north of Arles, and was probably heading towards a construction site further down the river. The boat was pointed upstream, though, rather than downstream, indicating it had been moored at the quay when it sank. A flash flood had probably swamped it. As soon as the flood subsided, the barge would have been covered in a coating of fine clay no more than 20 cm thick. This was where the archaeologists discovered the personal effects that the crew had left on the boat, including cooking utensils and plates. When the restorers were taking the boat apart, they also found a silver coin sealed between two planks of wood; it had been put there to bring good luck. And it did -- 2,000 years later. Arles-Rhône 3 was able to take its place in the new wing of the museum, on schedule, just over two years after re-emerging from the cloudy depths of the Rhône.
Questions 1-6
Choose TRUE if the statement agrees with the information given in the text, choose FALSE if the statement contradicts the information, or choose NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this.
1. In 1986 Luc Long had been looking for an opportunity to dive in the Rhône for some time.
2. Long and his friend were the first divers to find Roman remains in the Rhône.
3. Long’s work in the Rhône attracted immediate interest.
4. It was thought that the Neptune statue would be of interest to thieves.
5. Benoît Poinard doubted that the barge could be raised in one diving season.
6. The restorers were surprised to discover a silver coin on the barge.
Questions 7-13
Complete the notes. Write ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
The discovery and condition of the barge
- The barge was 34 metres long and was found by one of Long’s 7 in 2004.
- The wood had not decayed, but water had filled its cells, making the structure soft and 8.
Extraction from the Rhône
- Normally, the Rhône is safe for diving only from late June to 9.
- In 2011, because it hardly snowed in the Alps, the river’s 10 was very gentle.
- The diving team lost only one 11 to bad weather.
What was found on or near the barge
- The barge was carrying 33 tons of 12 for building work.
- Under the floorboards, restorers found a silver 13 dated to 30 BCE.
Part 2
Questions 14-26 Dark Chocolate’s Health Benefits
Dark Chocolate’s Health Benefits
Researchers are investigating whether taking dark chocolate daily can reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke
A Dark chocolate is gaining a reputation as a heart-healthy food, and research suggests that there might be some substance behind those claims. Ginger Hultin, owner of Champagne Nutrition in Seattle and a spokesperson for the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics says ‘Cocoa contains antioxidants in addition to magnesium, potassium, zinc, and iron. Plus, studies have shown that there could be some benefit to consuming chocolate or cocoa for the cardiovascular system, including potentially lowering blood pressure.'
B Dark chocolate’s health benefits come from its cocoa -- specifically its cocoa flavanols. Flavanols are a type of polyphenol, and polyphenols are one group of phytochemicals. Many fruits and vegetables contain flavanols, but they are especially rich in tea, wine, and cocoa. During digestion, cocoa is broken down into smaller chemical compounds. Some research suggests that these compounds have anti inflammatory and antioxidant properties and may help protect against cardiovascular disease, which affects both the heart and brain. For example, research has found that even two weeks of eating dark chocolate or other flavanol-rich cocoa products is better than a placebo for lowering blood pressure in people who already have high blood pressure, although not to normal levels. In 2013, the European Food Safety Authority approved the claim that cocoa flavanols help maintain normal blood pressure, which means that the cost involved in future medical treatment may be less than scientists previously predicted.
C Researchers have also pointed out that people may digest cocoa differently. Variations in gut bacteria can influence how flavanols are processed and absorbed in the body. As a result, the health effects of cocoa may differ from person to person, depending on individual digestive systems and dietary habits.
D Data from the long-running Physicians’ Health Study suggests that chocolate intake is associated with a reduced risk of developing Type 2 diabetes in younger and normal-weight men. However, take those findings with a grain of salt, because they were based on a single question about average yearly intake of chocolate that didn’t ask what type of chocolate -- white, milk, or dark -- says Howard Sesso, an associate professor of preventive medicine at Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston. ‘If we assume that any benefits from cocoa are attributable to its flavanol content, then dark chocolate should in theory confer greater benefits than milk chocolate.’ Sesso and other researchers are investigating whether taking daily supplements of 600 mg of cocoa flavanols -- not chocolate itself -- reduces the risk for developing heart disease and stroke, as well as cancer. However, they have yet to determine how much people need to consume to reap benefits.
E What does that mean for the average person who enjoys chocolate and hopes they’re getting some health benefit from it? Sadly, results from the large European Prospective Investigation of Cancer, EPIC-Norfolk study suggest that the amount of flavanols that the average person in Europe or the United States consumes is unlikely to do much to reduce risk of cardiovascular disease compared with taking medicine. The research also suggested that certain groups, particularly overweight individuals, may not receive the same protective effects from chocolate consumption as younger and normal-weight men.
F Even though cocoa is a key ingredient in milk and dark chocolate, you can’t really be sure how many flavanols you’re getting. ‘Product packaging does not specify amounts of cocoa flavanols, only percent cacao,’ Sesso says. ‘Variable processing of the cocoa bean makes it difficult to equate percent cacao with cocoa flavanol content.’ White chocolate contains no cocoa solids, milk chocolate contains relatively small amounts of cocoa, while dark chocolate contains a much higher percentage of cocoa. Cocoa may also appear in the form of cocoa powder, cocoa butter, or concentrated cocoa extracts.
G In the meantime, remember that chocolate products are typically high in calories and fats; therefore, Sesso says it’s best not to think of dark chocolate as a health food. ‘Moderation is key; if someone enjoys eating chocolate, it should be done in moderation along with other foods.’ So for now, it’s best not to put all your flavanol eggs in a dark chocolate basket. ‘We get different phytochemicals and antioxidants from a wide variety of foods,’ Hultin says. ‘Including different colors of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and beans is the best way to gain access to fiber that could support health.’ That said, she does recommend enjoying a bit of chocolate or cocoa. ‘I put cocoa powder in my smoothies for an added boost of flavor, nutrients and antioxidants.'
Questions 14-18
Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
NB You may use any letter more than once.
| A | B | C | D | E | F | G | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 14. a description of different kinds of cocoa used in chocolate production | |||||||
| 15. an explanation that chemicals produced during cocoa digestion may reduce the risks of diseases | |||||||
| 16. a reference to a group of people who may not benefit from eating chocolate | |||||||
| 17. an example of a specific way cocoa can be added into a beverage | |||||||
| 18. information about differences in the way people digest cocoa |
Questions 19-22
Look at the following statements and the list of people or organizations below.
Match each statement with the correct person or organization, A-D.
List of people / organizations
A. Ginger Hultin
B. European Food Safety Authority
C. Howard Sesso
D. EPIC-Norfolk
19. Eating cocoa together with dietary fiber may improve health.
19
20. Dark chocolate consumption could reduce medical spending in the future.
20
21. Dark chocolate should not be considered a replacement for medicine.
21
22. The amount of cocoa required for health benefits remains uncertain.
22
Questions 23-26
Complete the sentences below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
23. The digestive process turns cocoa into less complex chemical 23.
24. The 24 would vary according to chocolate type, with dark chocolate outperforming milk chocolate.
25. Dark chocolate should not be regarded as healthy due to its richness of calories and 25.
26. In Hultin’s view, dietary diversity is the best strategy for acquiring 26.
Part 3
Questions 27-40 The mystery of Easter Island
The mystery of Easter Island
What could possibly explain the lack of vegetation on Easter Island?
The giant stone statues of Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean have perplexed archaeologists ever since European explorers first witnessed them three centuries ago. Jacob Roggeveen, the Dutch seaman who gave the island its name in 1722, was amazed by the statues, each of which clearly weighed several tonnes. But as there were no forests on the island, he could not comprehend how people devoid of heavy timber could build and erect something that size. It was also remarkable considering the absence of metal objects for carving and cutting, and the reliance on mere human strength as no draught animals could be seen either. Roggeveen was equally amazed as to how the islanders could have come to colonise such a remote place. Their canoes were leaky and frail, not the sort of ocean-going craft that could survive a three-week sea journey. At the time of his visit, it seemed evident the islanders were living in extremely poor conditions and that there was no cultivation of crops.
What was the mystery behind the statues? In the 1970s, the author Erich von Däniken suggested the statues were the work of extraterrestrial beings. It was hard to believe the stones were the work of humans who were more than 2,000 miles from the nearest mainland, so for a short period of time his theory appealed to those fascinated with space travel. But for serious academics, the puzzle of the statues has caused a deep divide. Some archaeologists see Easter Island as an example of what can happen when the lust for material splendour -- ever bigger stone carvings in this case -- is satisfied at the expense of the environment. Others, meanwhile, take a different view. The island, these scholars argue, suffered at the hands of introduced diseases, notably smallpox, and a slave trade that stole a huge proportion of its indigenous population. At the heart of the debate is the issue of the island’s deforestation. There is no doubt that the island was once covered in palm trees. There is also no doubt that something happened that caused the island to become completely denuded over a short period of time. But was it the islanders who triggered this environmental degradation or another event beyond their control, such as the introduction of rats? It is an indisputable fact that rats found their way to the island, although exactly how is a matter of debate.
In 2005, the anthropologist Jared Diamond claimed the islanders started building ceremonial statues in an atmosphere of rivalry between the many clans. To move the statues from the island’s quarry in the south-east, they needed to cut large logs for the construction of long ‘canoe ladders’ to carry them to the coast. For its transport alone, each statue would have required several trees to be cut down. As a result of the deforestation, Diamond believes food production fell dramatically. Consequently the population collapsed from perhaps as many as 15,000 to the few thousand that were eking out a living by the time Roggeveen arrived. Smallpox and slavery killed off those who remained, but the islanders were on the way to total collapse even without any European contact, says Diamond.
But not everyone is convinced. Professor Terry Hunt, an anthropologist at the University of Hawaii, says: ‘There is no evidence that a population collapse occurred before European contact.’ He is supported by Professor Carl Lipo of California State University. They argue that Easter Island was colonised by the first Polynesian seafarers nowhere near as early as supposed. They say the first people to arrive came around AD1200, about 400 years later than other scientists have suggested from radio-carbon dating. This makes it implausible for the population to have reached the 15,000 figure that would have caused such a fast ecocide. They also believe the deforestation occurred over a longer period as a result of climate change, and rats probably also played a part. The islanders did not go through a population collapse until after the arrival of Europeans, they say.
Hunt has examined new data from the Hawaiian and other Pacific islands that shows that by early historic times the deforestation of Easter Island was already complete, or nearly so. A dense forest of palm trees and shrubs had mostly disappeared and as a result, as many as six land bird species had also become extinct. Crucially, much of the forest damage appears to have been done before evidence of fires on the island. However, almost all of the palm seed shells discovered on the island were found to have been gnawed by rats which would have made them unable to germinate. Evidence from other Pacific islands also confirms how destructive rats can be.
However, John Flenley of New Zealand’s Massey University, who carried out much of the radio-carbon work on Easter Island, says there is ample evidence for a much earlier arrival of Polynesian settlers. He refutes the arguments of the sceptics: whilst admitting that the Europeans did bring certain disasters, he maintains that Hunt and Lipo are ignoring archaeological, botanical and sedimentological evidence proving the island was transformed from a subtropical rainforest to a treeless landscape. The radio-carbon dating points to an initial colonisation before AD900, Flenley argues. This was ample time for the rapid deforestation, environmental collapse and a population crash, he insists.
Why all this is important today is not, of course, lost in the age of globalisation, climate change and a rapidly growing world population in the billions. As Diamond says: ‘The parallels between Easter Island and the whole of the modern world are chillingly obvious.’
Questions 27-30
Complete the summary using the list of words, A-K, below.
* Drag a word and drop it into the blank space.
Early European reaction to the discovery of Easter Island
When Dutchman Jacob Roggeveen sailed to Easter Island in 1722, he was amazed by the stone statues he saw for a number of reasons. Firstly, it was clear that they were immensely heavy, and there was no 27 around, which would have helped with their construction. Roggeveen did not think the inhabitants had any metal tools, or animals for heavy labour either. Another mystery was the poor quality of the local inhabitants’ 28: Roggeveen wondered how the people had managed to survive long trips. At the time of Roggeveen’s visit, he observed that the people were living in 29, and there was no evidence of successful 30 on the island.
Questions 31-35
Do the following statements agree with the claim of the writer in Reading Passage 3?
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts with the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
31. Erich von Däniken’s claims were briefly accepted by some sections of society.
32. Archaeologists removed valuable artefacts from the island.
33. Smallpox continued to affect Easter Island’s inhabitants for centuries.
34. It remains open to question whether Easter Island was once covered in forest.
35. The way that rats arrived on Easter Island is still to be established.
Questions 36-40
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
36. What does Jared Diamond blame for the lack of vegetation on Easter Island?
37. What do Hunt and Lipo suggest about the population of Easter Island?
38. What is suggested about rats on Easter Island in the fifth paragraph?
39. Flenley responds to Hunt and Lipo’s theory by
40. The writer’s purpose in this article is to