Part 1
Questions 1-13 A Brief History of Humans and Food
A Brief History of Humans and Food
During the journey from our hunter-gatherer ancestors to the present day, there have been three seismic changes that have affected the food we eat: the discovery of cooking, the emergence of agriculture, and the invention of methods of preserving food.
The 19th-century scientist Charles Darwin thought that cooking, after language, was the greatest discovery made by humans. All of us eat some raw food, such as fruit and vegetables, but the great majority of the food we consume is cooked. Cooking can turn plants that are inedible into edible food by destroying toxic chemicals that plants often manufacture to protect themselves against attacks by insects or other herbivorous animals. These toxic chemicals are referred to as "plant secondary compounds" because they are not directly involved in a plant’s normal growth, development, and reproduction, and are produced purely as chemical defences. They give many of the plants we consume, such as coffee and Brussels sprouts, their bitter taste.
Cooked food is often more digestible because heat breaks down tough cellulose cell walls in plants and tough connective tissue in animals. Chewing a raw turnip, a plate of uncooked rice, or a raw leg of lamb is much harder work than eating the cooked equivalent. The energy expended in chewing to break down the tough material is replaced by energy from the fuel used to cook the food, so the ratio of energy gained to energy expended by the body is greater when food is cooked.
Until the development of agriculture, hunter-gatherers spent up to seven hours a day gathering food. This began to change around 10,500 years ago with the advent of farming, which led to dramatic changes in human societies. People began to create a variety of new tools to aid survival, and populations increased in size. These changes made it possible for people to specialise in different tasks within society. Around this time, writing became more sophisticated and allowed people to maintain records of harvests and taxes. Eventually, formalised structures of government were established as people settled permanently in particular areas.
The arrival of agriculture meant that, for the first time, our ancestors had more food than they could eat immediately. This, combined with the seasonality of production, led them to discover methods of preserving food: smoking, drying, adding acid through fermentation, and adding salt. These four methods share one feature: they make food a more hostile environment for bacteria that can cause it to spoil. They also tend to slow down the natural chemical reactions in food that would otherwise cause decay.
Although food is still preserved using these ancient techniques, two more recent methods have become increasingly common: canning and freezing. Canning was invented by a Frenchman, Nicolas Appert, in the early 19th century. He sealed food in bottles made from glass and then heated them in boiling water to cook the contents. Appert’s method had significant advantages over older methods of food preservation: it could be applied to a wide range of foods, and the flavour and texture of the preserved food were similar to those of freshly cooked products. His idea was soon copied by an Englishman, Peter Durand. Until this point, containers had been too heavy to be widely used, but Durand introduced the first containers that were both lightweight and resistant to damage. Two years later, in 1812, two Englishmen, Bryan Donkin and John Hall, began the commercial canning of food. However, the real rise in the popularity of canning had to wait until the invention of the can opener in 1855. Before then, cans were opened using a chisel and hammer. Canning is an extremely effective way of preserving food: a can containing meat that dated back to 1824 was opened in 1939, and its contents were still in good condition.
In the 21st century, canning’s dominance as a method of food preservation has been overtaken by freezing. Chilling food to keep it fresh is an old idea. The earliest references to icehouses--thick-walled buildings constructed partly underground--date back to 1700 BC in northwestern Iran. In early 16th-century Italy, water was mixed with chemicals to lower its freezing point to --18 degrees Celsius. Several centuries later, frozen fish and other goods were transported by ship from Australia to England. However, the modern frozen-food industry was established in the 1920s by an American named Clarence Birdseye. During a fishing trip with the Inuit in the Canadian Arctic, Birdseye observed that rapid freezing created smaller ice crystals and therefore caused less damage to food--a discovery he had not expected. Nevertheless, the greatest growth in demand for frozen food came with the arrival of freezers in ordinary people’s homes. The advantages of frozen food over canned food include the fact that its flavour and consistency are often identical to those of the fresh product and that freezing can be used to preserve a wide variety of foods.
Questions 1-5
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1. According to Darwin, cooking was the most significant development in human history.
2. The process of cooking gets rid of some plant poisons.
3. Eating cooked food is more energy-efficient than eating raw food.
4. Clarence Birdseye had previously worked in the Australian food industry.
5. Birdseye’s trip with the Inuit confirmed what he already believed about rapid freezing.
Questions 6-13
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
The Development of Agriculture and Food Preservation
The changes brought about by agriculture
- The development of equipment and larger 6
- The ability to keep 7 as writing developed
- The establishment of organised government
Early methods of food preservation
- Smoking
- Acid or 8
- Adding salt
Canning
- Nicolas Appert put food into containers.
- Appert’s method resulted in preserved food with the same taste and 9 as fresh food.
- Peter Durand introduced containers that were lightweight and 10.
- In 1855, the metal can opener replaced the 11 and hammer previously used to open cans.
- Some food was still edible after more than 100 years, such as an old can of 12.
Freezing
- Rapid freezing prevents the formation of large ice crystals and causes less 13 to food.
Part 2
Questions 14-26 The Strength of the Pack
The Strength of the Pack
"For the strength of the pack is the wolf, and the strength of the wolf is the pack."
-- Rudyard Kipling, The Law for the Wolves
A wolf pack is an extremely well-organised family group with a well-defined social structure and a clear-cut code of conduct. Every wolf has a particular place and function within the pack, and every member must do its fair share of the work. The supreme leader is a highly experienced wolf--the alpha--which has dominance over the whole pack. It is the protector and decision-maker and directs the others as to where, when, and what to hunt. However, it does not lead the pack during the hunt because it is considered too valuable to risk being injured or killed. That responsibility belongs to the beta wolf, which occupies second place in the hierarchy of the pack. The beta takes on the role of enforcer--the fighter or "tough guy"--and is large, strong, and highly aggressive. It acts as both the disciplinarian of the pack and the alpha’s bodyguard.
The tester, a watchful and distrustful character, alerts the alpha if it encounters anything suspicious while scouting for signs of trouble. It also acts as the pack’s quality controller, ensuring that the other wolves are deserving of their positions. It does this by creating situations that test their bravery and courage, such as starting a fight. At the bottom of the social hierarchy is the omega wolf, which is subordinate and submissive to all the others. However, it often plays the role of peacemaker by intervening in disputes within the pack and defusing tense situations by clowning around. Whereas the tester may create conflict, the omega is more likely to resolve it.
The rest of the pack consists of mid- to low-ranking non-breeding adults and the immature offspring of the alpha and its mate. The size of the group varies from approximately six to ten members or more, depending on the abundance of food and the size of the wolf population in general.
Wolves have acquired an undeserved reputation for being ruthless predators that pose a danger to humans and livestock. Wolves have traditionally been portrayed in fairy tales and folklore as vicious creatures that kill any people or animals they encounter. However, the truth is that wolves kill only to eat, never kill more than they need, and rarely attack humans unless their safety is threatened in some way. It has been suggested that hybrid wolf-dogs or wolves suffering from rabies are actually responsible for many historical attacks as well as more recent incidents.
Wolves hunt mainly at night. They usually seek out large herbivores, such as deer, although they also eat smaller animals, including beavers, hares, and rodents, when these are available. Some wolves in western Canada are known to fish for salmon. The alpha wolf identifies a particular animal in a large herd by the scent it leaves behind. The prey is often a very young, old, or injured animal in poor condition. The alpha signals to the hunters which animal to bring down and when to strike by using tail movements and the scent produced by a gland located at the tip of its spine, above the tail.
Wolves kill to survive. They need to eat to maintain their strength and health, but the way they feast on their prey also reinforces the social order. Every member of the family has a designated place at the carcass, and the alpha directs the wolves to their positions through various ear postures, such as moving an ear forwards, flattening it against the head, or swivelling it around. The alpha wolf eats the prized internal organs, while the beta is entitled to the muscle meat of the rump and thigh. The omega and other low-ranking wolves are assigned the intestinal contents and less desirable parts, such as the backbone and ribs.
The rigid class structure within a wolf pack involves frequent displays of supremacy and respect. When a higher-ranking wolf approaches, a lower-ranking wolf must slow down, lower its body, and pass to the side with its head averted to show deference. In an extreme display of passive submission, it may roll onto its back, exposing its throat and belly. The dominant wolf stands over it, stiff-legged and tall, asserting its superiority and authority within the pack.
Questions 14-19
Classify the following statements as referring to:
A. the alpha wolf
B. the beta wolf
C. the tester wolf
D. the omega wolf
14. It is at the forefront of the pack when the wolves hunt.
14
15. It tries to calm tensions and settle disputes between members of the pack.
15
16. It is the wolf in charge and maintains control over the pack.
16
17. It warns the leader about potential danger.
17
18. It protects the leader of the pack.
18
19. It sets up a trial to determine whether another wolf is worthy of its position in the pack.
19
Questions 20-26
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
20. Wolves are a constant danger to humans.
21. Crossbred wolves or sick wolves may be responsible for many attacks on people.
22. Canadian wolves prefer to eat fish, particularly salmon.
23. The leader of a wolf pack identifies a particular target for attack by its smell.
24. When wolves attack a herd, they target the healthiest animal.
25. The part of a dead animal that a wolf may eat depends on its status within the pack.
26. A low-ranking wolf that fails to show submission will be attacked by the dominant wolf.
Part 3
Questions 27-40 Book Review: Architecture in the United States
Book Review: Architecture in the United States
by Dell Upton
As its title suggests, Architecture in the United States is an ambitious work, and few scholars are as qualified to undertake such a project as Dell Upton. A distinguished scholar of American architectural history with a background in American studies, Upton is as knowledgeable about vernacular architecture as he is about high-style architecture. The book is structured around five themes: Community, Nature, Technology, Money, and Art. The usefulness of this technique becomes apparent as the reader progresses through the book and realises that Upton discusses not only houses, farms, and commercial buildings but also landscape architecture, gardens, bridges, public sculptures, and entire cities. His thematic structure is also closely aligned with his intention to examine architecture not primarily as a form of art but as an integral part of social and economic history.
The first chapter, "An American Icon," is devoted to the house. Upton’s discussion of this fundamental architectural unit and its importance to the primary social structure of the family provides an effective introduction to the broader topic of the relationship between architecture and society. Although much of the chapter focuses on examples of elite houses, particularly Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello, Upton also incorporates a considerable amount of essential information about folk houses into his interpretations. This chapter, like the four that follow it, adopts a loosely chronological approach in its analysis of examples of homes from the 17th to the 20th centuries while integrating a discussion of form and style with social and economic processes.
The subsequent chapters expand the scope of the book. "Community" explores how architectural forms--from New England meeting houses to suburban subdivisions--reflect and shape social organisation and collective identity. "Nature" examines the complex relationship between the built environment and the natural world, tracing attitudes from colonial land use to the modern environmental movement. "Technology" explains how innovations in materials and construction methods, from balloon framing to steel skeletons, enabled new architectural possibilities and reflected broader industrial changes. "Money" analyses architecture as a product of economic forces, discussing everything from slave-built plantations to speculative real-estate developments and corporate skyscrapers.
Upton’s greatest strength is his ability to weave diverse elements into a coherent narrative. He avoids the traditional style-centred survey that often prioritises famous architects and landmark buildings. Instead, he presents a more democratic view of the American built environment, giving equal weight to the ordinary and the extraordinary. A farmhouse, a highway, a shopping mall, and a national monument are all treated as significant texts that reveal cultural values, power dynamics, and historical change. This approach makes the book particularly valuable to students and general readers seeking to understand how the spaces Americans have created and inhabited tell the story of the nation itself.
Some critics might argue that the thematic organisation sacrifices a clear linear timeline, making it occasionally difficult to trace precise historical developments. However, Upton’s method ultimately provides a richer and more interconnected understanding of architectural history. Architecture in the United States succeeds not as a mere catalogue of buildings but as a compelling analysis of how architecture functions within American life. It is an essential volume for anyone interested in the intersection of design, history, and culture.
Questions 27-31
Complete the summary below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Book Review: Architecture in the United States
Dell Upton’s book is ambitious and structured around five 27: Community, Nature, Technology, Money, and Art. His approach examines architecture as part of 28 and economic history rather than merely as art. The first chapter focuses on the 29 as a key architectural and social unit, using examples ranging from elite to 30 houses. Upton’s strength lies in weaving diverse elements into a coherent narrative and offering a 31 view of the American built environment that values both ordinary and extraordinary structures.
Questions 32-35
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3?
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
32. Dell Upton has a professional background solely in architectural design.
33. The book discusses a wide variety of structures in addition to buildings.
34. The chapter "An American Icon" analyses only houses from the 20th century.
35. Some critics believe that the book’s thematic structure makes its historical timeline less clear.
Questions 36-40
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
36. What is the main purpose of the book’s thematic structure, according to the reviewer?
37. The reviewer presents Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello as an example of
38. According to the review, what does Upton treat as "significant texts"?
39. What potential weakness of the book’s structure does the reviewer acknowledge?
40. Who would find this book particularly valuable, according to the review?