Part 1
Clarence Birdseye and the Development of Frozen Food
Clarence Birdseye and the Development of Frozen Food
Born in 1886 in New York, the American naturalist Clarence Birdseye had an instinctive curiosity, a love of food, and a strong entrepreneurial streak. At the age of ten, he was hunting, selling live animals and teaching himself taxidermy, the art of preserving and mounting the skins of animals. He studied science in college, but had to drop out because tuition was too expensive. Forced to support himself, he moved west, where he worked in Montana as an assistant naturalist, capturing small mammals to study the parasites that they often carried in their fur. Eventually, partly as a result of this research, the source of a prevalent disease was isolated.
Within a few years, Birdseye moved to the arctic tundra of Labrador, in what is now northern Canada, where he worked for several years as a fur trader. He spent much of his time among the local trappers who worked year-round in the icy wilderness, and he rode long journeys with a nine-dog sled to purchase goods that were exported to a company in New York. It appeared that Birdseye relished the challenge that came with the cold climate and rugged landscape of Labrador.
However, the food in Labrador left a great deal to be desired. The bleak climate meant that everything he ate during the winter was either from cans or frozen. When the frozen food was thawed, Birdseye found it to be tasteless. What’s more, the texture of the food became mushy and unappealing. Other than fish, there were no fresh sources of food, so the naturalist took up ice fishing with some of the local Inuit people, carving holes in frozen lakes and casting a line for trout. With air temperatures so far below zero, a fish pulled out of the lake would freeze solid in a matter of seconds. But when he thawed out the frozen trout, Birdseye found it tasted far fresher than the usual food he was used to eating.
Unwittingly, the young adventurer had made a powerful discovery. He would come to realize that the dramatic difference in taste was all due to the speed of the freezing process, or what we call ‘flash freezing’, and that by recreating the science, he could make high quality frozen food.
In the first decades of the 20th century, the frozen-food business was considered to be the very bottom of the barrel. Frozen food was terrible. In fact, it was even banned in New York State prisons for being beneath the culinary standard of convicts. A key problem was that the food was being frozen at relatively high temperatures, often just a few degrees below freezing. A slow freeze allowed ice to form larger crystals that broke the membranes surrounding and protecting each of the cells within the food. When the food was defrosted, the ice crystals melted and the juice would leak out. But flash freezing avoided this problem, plus scientific advances had made it possible to artificially produce temperatures that were much like Birdseye had experienced in Labrador.
By the early 1920s, Birdseye had created a flash-freezing process using cartons of fish, stacked and frozen at minus 40 degrees Celsius. Birdseye was also concerned about eliminating the little air pockets that in whole fish could harbor bacteria and lead to decomposition. So a key pan of his original 1924 process called for removing the bones, which allowed the fish parts to be tightly packed into rectangular fiberboard boxes.
Birdseye had to pioneer almost everything else in his process as well. This included inventing a glue for the packaging boxes, to withstand the changes in temperature, as well as a waterproof ink for the labels. He found that just about anything he froze with his method -- fruit, meat, vegetables -- would be remarkably fresh after thawing.
Frozen food was still more than a decade away from becoming common in the average diet across the United States. This required a critical mass of freezers -- in supermarkets and home kitchens -- that wouldn’t be available until the late 1940s. But Birdseye’s experiments were so promising that in 1929, his company, General Seafood, was acquired by the Postum Cereal Company. His adventures in ice fishing had made him a multimillionaire.
In our current age of locally sourced food production, frozen food has fallen out of favor with the public. But the advent of flash-frozen food had a positive impact on the American economy and the health of everyday people. It extended distribution across the entire country so that fish caught in the North Atlantic could be eaten in distant cities like Denver or Dallas. And produce harvested in summer could be consumed months later. By the mid-20th century, frozen food was a worldwide phenomenon.
In fact, while nutritionists today would prefer we eat fresh food grown locally, they acknowledge the value of frozen food. And scientists at the University of Chester in England came to the same conclusion after performing tests on the nutritional value of frozen produce. They found in many cases that frozen fruits and vegetables are more nutritious and healthier than the regular unfrozen variety sold in stores.
This is because the minute a fruit or vegetable is harvested, it begins to decay. But, as most frozen fruits and vegetables are flash-frozen within hours of their harvest, at their peak of ripeness, this locks in many of the important nutrients. Meanwhile, the unfrozen produce can undergo change while being transported thousands of kilometers over several days. In one report, the vitamin C content in raspberries frozen for a year was compared to that of unfrozen raspberries stored in a refrigerator for three days. Their levels of vitamin C were nearly the same.
Questions 1--7
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Clarence Birdseye and the Frozen Food Industry
Early adventures
- Birdseye grew up hunting and selling animals.
- He left 1 for financial reasons.
- His work in Montana was a factor in finding the cause of a widespread 2.
- He moved to Labrador, where he bought fur for a New York company.
- He enjoyed the 3 of living in such a harsh environment.
A better way to freeze food
- Birdseye realised that the process of freezing and thawing food changed its taste and texture.
- While fishing with the Inuit, he made a 4 that could improve frozen food.
- In the early 20th century the quality of frozen food was so poor that even some 5 couldn’t serve it.
- Birdseye found that when food was flash-frozen the 6 of the cells were kept intact.
- Taking out bones from whole fish minimised the air content of the packaging.
- Birdseye also created a new kind of 7 and glue for packaging.
- Because supermarkets and kitchens lacked freezers, frozen food was not part of the typical American diet before the late 1940s.
Questions 8--13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
8. The public today has a positive view of frozen food.
9. Most North Atlantic fish are caught during the summer.
10. Nutritionists and university scientists disagree about whether frozen food is beneficial.
11. Produce can lose nutrients soon after being picked.
12. Most produce that is going to be frozen is picked when it is perfectly ripe.
13. Raspberries are among the best sources of vitamin C.
Part 2
Playing Soccer
Playing Soccer
There are many differences between playing soccer in the street and joining a youth team in an organized league in the USA.
A Street soccer, as its name implies, is an informal variation of the sport, often played on the street, particularly in urban areas. There are many reasons for the widespread popularity of street soccer. Unlike youth soccer, its more formally organized counterpart, no large space is needed, and goal posts, corner markers, and marked lines, associated with the formal game, are typically absent, as are game officials or referees. Another attraction of street soccer is that it is played frequently and competitively, but does not necessarily require standard 11-a-side teams or fixed playing positions. Unlike in youth soccer, inexperienced street soccer players rarely learn from repetitive technical and tactical drills. Instead, they learn from their poor performance in competition, unconscious of the skills they are nonetheless developing, and without older adults or coaches present. Players learn without effort through playing the game and soon attain an almost natural feeling for the sport.
B However, there are lots of cities in the world today where conditions are such that street soccer is no longer possible. Congested traffic now dominates where games were once played. Parks and open fields are used as hangouts for older teenagers with other interests. Add to this the requirement in many localities for official permits to use public spaces and the managed schedules that many young people have today, and spontaneous play of any kind is hard to imagine.
C In spite of all these obstacles, which are probably solvable in most instances, there is another sociological explanation of why in many places street soccer doesn’t enjoy the same popularity it once did. In his book How Soccer Explains the World, US writer Franklin Foer observes: "But for all the talk of freedom, the 1960s parenting style had a far less relaxed side too. Like the 1960s consumer movement which brought seat belts and airbags to cars, the (youth) soccer movement felt like it could create a set of… regulations that would protect both the child’s body and mind from damage. Soccer leagues like the one I played in as a child handed out ‘participation’ prizes to every player, no matter how few games his (or her) team won. Where most of the world accepts the practice of using your head to hit the ball as an essential element of the game, some (youth) soccer parents have worried over the potential for injury to the brain. An entire industry grew up to manufacture protective headgear… Even though very little medical evidence supports this fear, some youth leagues prohibited heading the ball altogether."
D A growing body of people don’t believe street soccer involves a legitimate educational method. They argue that children need to be taught by experts. Youth soccer instruction now begins with four-year-olds, so that they will have an advantage as six-year-olds. This need to get ahead brings with it a fear of falling behind that only expert instruction can prevent. This type of instruction leaves no room for the trial and error approach of street soccer.
E One of the basic ideas of street soccer is that young players are assigned a particular role by a better player and are expected to play for the good of the team. Such an assignment runs counter to the idea of youth soccer that every child needs to learn every position and will benefit from doing so. In street soccer, you fill the role that you are best suited to at a particular time. While this role assignment can change from game to game, the purpose is always the same: to get the best out of each individual at any given moment.
F In street soccer, children have to learn patience, to wait their turn, to realize that they are not entitled to make decisions, or even be listened to simply because they show up. Positions of responsibility are earned through competition within the team. Younger players in street soccer must wait to attain those positions. In youth soccer, however, with its overly democratic values, youngsters are guaranteed their time in the spotlight. Whether it’s their turn to be captain, to play a central position, or to take a crucial shot, youth soccer players come to believe that hard work and patience aren’t really necessary.
G Not only does every youth soccer player get a chance, it is assumed that each individual has played well. "Everyone’s a winner, no one’s a loser" is a guiding principle of youth soccer. This ensures each individual goes away feeling positive about themselves. No one can leave a game or a practice feeling bad. But, if there really are no losers, then why try at all? Since giving less than your best receives the same reward as giving your best, why go to any extra effort? In street soccer, every game results in a winner and a loser, and everyone knows who is who. Losing a game is a common experience, and players learn early on how to handle this. As a result, unlike most youth soccer players, they acquire resilience.
A further difference between these two strands of soccer is that in street soccer a formal record is not kept. You can lose one day and win the next. The results are only temporary and are forgotten within minutes of the end of the match. But in organized youth soccer, the position each person plays and the results are formally noted and maintained throughout a season.
Questions 14--19
Reading Passage 2 has seven sections, A--G.
Which section contains the following information?
| A | B | C | D | E | F | G | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 14. a contrast between the ways young players gain experience of playing different positions | |||||||
| 15. examples outside sport of greater emphasis on individual safety | |||||||
| 16. a description of methods of selection for leadership on soccer teams | |||||||
| 17. details of urban changes that discourage street soccer | |||||||
| 18. a mention of the lesson that failure teaches street soccer players | |||||||
| 19. an explanation of why youth soccer emphasises the need for coaches |
Questions 20--21
Which TWO reasons for the popularity of street soccer are mentioned?
Questions 22--23
Which TWO results of the 1960s parenting style are mentioned by Franklin Foer?
Questions 24--26
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Winners and losers
For youth soccer players, a key 24 is that they should always come away from the game with a positive attitude. In this respect, regardless of the effort the players make, they get some kind of 25 at the end of a game.
In street soccer, however, players gain resilience because they have to learn to cope with failure. But the outcome of a match isn’t remembered for long. In fact, no one ever keeps a 26 of the results of games.
Part 3
Practical Learning in the Classroom
Practical Learning in the Classroom
A teacher describes a case study involving middle school students and traditional earthen architecture.
A The way we think about architecture in schools has come a long way. Once, studying architecture in the art class meant learning to appreciate great buildings art-history style, through slide presentations. In recent years, though, the American Institute of Architects has fostered the idea that the process of architectural design, not just the appreciation of architecture, is a beneficial aspect of the art curriculum (Sadler, 1989).
B The value of architectural design is that it is the concrete training ground for a broadly applicable creative process. Architectural training can help people design structures to meet needs. It can help farmers design crop rotations to meet needs. Furthermore, it provides hands-on experiences that reinforce learning in various other subjects, from math to social studies.
C In the ongoing dialogue about architecture in the middle school art curriculum, many believe students should actually build the structures they design in their courses. Although the technology and expertise required of modern architecture can prohibit students from actually realizing their designs, traditional architectural materials and methods remain quite accessible to the art classroom. Traditional architectural materials, such as earth, clay and straw, are cheap, easy to work with and readily available. Further, when students participate in the construction or preservation of a traditional earthen structure in their local community, they engage in a form of experiential learning and they are motivated to invest in the project. This is evident in a case study of an adobe* conservation project with middle school students in the town of Zuni, New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States.
D Traditional architecture reaches back to preindustrial America, when local resources and cultures produced structures in styles unique to each region. In New Mexico, examples of hand-built earthen structures still abound. The region has seen some decline in traditional architecture as industrialization has brought new building codes and materials; however, the traditional, non-industrial home, either preserved from earlier generations or newly built, remains in use. Traditional building materials and the land that supplies them are so accessible that handcrafting a house still remains feasible.
E Thus, with no technical expertise and little cost, middle school students can participate in the construction or preservation of a traditional earthen structure. During the project, a student will get to know the materials, understand the chemistry, solve problems, work with classmates, and exercise muscles. The student can apply knowledge of design principles and the creative process while participating in a cooperative effort. But most significantly, this type of project-based activity motivates students to invest intellectually and emotionally in the outcome.
F The town of Zuni, where I taught art, was surrounded by adobe construction, new and old. Behind our main high school building there was a one-room adobe structure which was once used for teaching. Now it served as a place where old furniture could be kept. I sent my class home with the oral history assignment to ask their family, friends and neighbors questions to find out about that building. From their research we compiled a sketchy history: it began as a kindergarten classroom; it later became an art classroom; now it was full of broken desks.
G The building’s design kept it relatively warm in the winter, even without heating, due to its broad south face, and it stayed cool in the summer due to its spacious, ventilated attic and massive earthen walls. Because of this, my students agreed it was worth preserving and were enthusiastic about helping. Preservationist Shalie Gasper arrived in the fall to help with an assessment of the building’s needs. She recommended replacing the stucco** that encased the original adobe walls with a traditional mud plaster. She showed us where to find local supplies of sand and clay soil for the plaster mix. We began work on the stucco removal in late fall. The next spring the students were ready to replaster. To teach the traditional skills, Gasper and other local specialists joined us. They gave my class three full mornings of intensive workshops on history and preservation as well as mud-plastering technique, and the building got a new coat of traditional mud plaster.
H Small design-and-build projects such as this can be seen through to the finish when working with earth in the art curriculum. A simple landscape feature such as a wall, entryway, or arch can draw students into important aspects of design that involve the structure’s interaction with people, the surrounding landscape, and natural elements. The same project may provide an opportunity to focus on the chemistry of soil or the structural dynamics of construction. Design goals might guide students to involve traditional forms, consider formal aspects, or integrate math skills of measuring and estimating.
I During our traditional architecture unit, the students realized that something old and almost forgotten is valuable and worth preserving. Many others in the community and around the country share this renewal of interest in traditional earthen technologies. It is the connection to a cultural heritage that interests some; the quality of living within massive, natural walls that attracts others; or for others, the sustainability of the process and the minimal energy spent in construction. The value of adobe in general is becoming more and more known, but little has been said about its value in the art curriculum until now. This experiment in adobe conservation with middle school students convinced me that traditional architecture deserves a place in the regular curriculum.
* adobe: a mixture of mud and straw that is made into bricks and used for building
** stucco: fine plaster used for coating wall surfaces
Questions 27--31
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
27. What education initiative does the American Institute of Architects currently promote?
28. In the third paragraph, what problem with teaching architecture on art courses does the writer note?
29. What is the greatest benefit for students that the writer sees in a traditional architecture project?
30. What is the purpose of the eighth paragraph?
31. What does the writer say about traditional building and the general population?
Questions 32--36
Complete the summary using the list of words, A--H, below.
Drag the correct option into each blank.
* Drag a word and drop it into the blank space.
The Zuni earthen architecture project
The students in Zuni chose to renovate an old building which was being used for 32. They came to an agreement that the building was worthy of rehabilitation based on its functional 33. At the beginning of the project, students were given the task to discover the history of the building through interviews with local residents. Through the course of the project, they learned where to locate 34 for the project. They also worked closely with a number of 35 on each step of the project. During the project, students were also given 36 to build useful skills.
Questions 37--40
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3?
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
37. The price of materials is one drawback to using traditional architecture.
38. Earthen structures can easily be built in all regions of the U.S.
39. Working with a traditional earthen structure can have physical benefits.
40. A traditional architecture curriculum is best suited to middle school level students.