Part 1
History of Tea
History of Tea
The story of tea begins in China. According to legend, in 2737 BC, the Chinese emperor Shen Nung was sitting beneath a tree while his servant boiled drinking water, when some leaves from the tree blew into the water. Shen Nung, a renowned herbalist, decided to try the infusion that his servant had accidentally created. The tree was a Camellia sinensis, and the resulting drink was what we now call tea.
It is impossible to know whether there is any truth in this story. However, tea drinking certainly became established in China many centuries before it had even been heard of in the West. Containers for tea have been found in tombs dating from the Han Dynasty, 206 BC--220 AD, but it was under the Tang Dynasty, 618--906 AD, that tea became firmly established as the national drink of China.
It became such a favourite that during the late eighth century, a writer called Lu Yu wrote the first book entirely about tea, the Ch’a Ching, or Tea Classic. It was shortly after this that tea was first introduced to Japan by Japanese Buddhist monks who had travelled to China to study. Tea received almost instant imperial sponsorship and spread rapidly from the royal court and monasteries to other sections of Japanese society.
At this stage in the history of tea, Europe was rather lagging behind. In the latter half of the sixteenth century, there were the first brief mentions of tea as a drink among Europeans. These were mostly from Portuguese people who were living in the East as traders and missionaries.
Although some of these individuals may have brought samples of tea back to their native country, it was not the Portuguese who first shipped tea back as a commercial import. This was done by the Dutch, who, in the final years of the sixteenth century, began to encroach on Portuguese trading routes in the East.
By the turn of the century, the Dutch had established a trading post on the island of Java. It was via Java that, in 1606, the first consignment of tea was shipped from China to Holland. Tea soon became a fashionable drink among the Dutch and spread from there to other countries in continental western Europe. However, because of its high price, it remained a drink for the wealthy.
Britain, always a little suspicious of continental trends, had yet to become the nation of tea drinkers that it is today. Starting in 1600, the British East India Company had a monopoly on importing goods from outside Europe, and it is likely that sailors on these ships brought tea home as gifts.
The first coffee house had been established in London in 1652, and tea was still somewhat unfamiliar to most readers, so it is fair to assume that the drink was still something of a curiosity. Gradually, tea became a popular drink in coffee houses, which were locations for business transactions as well as relaxation and pleasure.
These establishments were, however, the preserve of middle- and upper-class men. Women drank tea in their own homes, and tea was still too expensive to be widespread among the working classes. Its high price was partly due to a punitive system of taxation.
One unforeseen consequence of the taxation of tea was the growth of methods to avoid taxation--smuggling and adulteration. By the eighteenth century, many Britons wanted to drink tea but could not afford the high prices, and their enthusiasm for the drink was matched by the enthusiasm of criminal gangs to smuggle it into the country.
What began as a small-scale illegal trade, selling a few pounds of tea to personal contacts, developed by the late eighteenth century into an astonishing organised crime network. It may have imported as much as seven million pounds annually, compared with legal imports of five million pounds.
Worse for drinkers was that taxation also encouraged the adulteration of tea, particularly smuggled tea that was not quality-controlled through customs and excise. Leaves from other plants, or leaves that had already been brewed and then dried, were added to tea leaves.
By 1784, the government realised that heavy taxation was creating more problems than it was worth. The new Prime Minister, William Pitt the Younger, reduced the tax from 119 per cent to 12.5 per cent. Suddenly, legal tea was affordable, and smuggling stopped virtually overnight.
Another great impetus to tea drinking resulted from the end of the East India Company’s monopoly on trade with China in 1834. Before that date, China was the country of origin of the vast majority of the tea imported into Britain, but the end of the monopoly stimulated the East India Company to consider growing tea outside China.
India had always been the centre of the company’s operations, which led to the increased cultivation of tea in India, beginning in Assam. There were a few false starts, including the destruction by cattle of one of the earliest tea nurseries, but by 1888, British tea imports from India were, for the first time, greater than those from China.
The end of the East India Company’s monopoly on trade with China also had another result, which was more dramatic, although less important in the long term: it ushered in the era of the tea clippers.
While the company had held the monopoly on trade, there had been no rush to bring tea from China to Britain. After 1834, however, the tea trade became a virtual free-for-all. Individual merchants and sea captains with their own ships raced to bring home the tea and make the most money, using fast new clippers with sleek lines, tall masts and enormous sails.
In particular, there was competition between British and American merchants, leading to the famous clipper races of the 1860s. These races soon came to an end with the opening of the Suez Canal, which made the trade routes to China viable for steamships for the first time.
Questions 1--7
Complete the sentences below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
1. Researchers believe that tea containers discovered in 1 from the Han Dynasty provide some of the earliest evidence of tea use.
2. Lu Yu was the first person to write a complete 2 about tea.
3. Buddhist 3 introduced tea to Japan after travelling to China.
4. The first commercial shipment of tea from China to Europe was organised by the 4.
5. The British government reduced tea taxation partly because of the growth of 5.
6. During the nineteenth century, tea was cultivated in 6 as well as China.
7. Merchants used fast sailing ships called 7 to compete in tea races.
Questions 8--13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
8. Tea was already a popular drink in Britain during the sixteenth century.
9. In late-sixteenth-century Europe, tea was more fashionable than coffee.
10. People from every social class in seventeenth-century Britain regularly drank tea.
11. The adulteration of tea was one factor that persuaded William Pitt the Younger to reduce the tax.
12. The East India Company encountered initial difficulties when it began growing tea outside China.
13. American merchants owned the fastest vessels used in the nineteenth-century tea clipper races.
Part 2
Biodiversity
Biodiversity
A It seems biodiversity has become a buzzword beloved of politicians, conservationists, protesters and scientists alike. But what exactly is it? The Convention on Biological Diversity, an international agreement to conserve and share the planet’s biological riches, provides a useful working definition: biodiversity comprises every form of life, from the smallest microbe to the largest animal or plant, the genes that give organisms their specific characteristics and the ecosystems of which they are a part.
B In October, the World Conservation Union, also known as the IUCN, published its updated Red List of Threatened Species, a roll call of 11,167 creatures facing extinction--121 more than when the list was last published in 2000. However, the new figures almost certainly underestimate the crisis.
Some 1.2 million species of animal and 270,000 species of plant have been classified, but the well-being of only a fraction has been assessed. The resources are simply not available. The IUCN reports that 5,714 plants are threatened, for example, but admits that only four per cent of known plants have been assessed. There are also thousands of species that have yet to be discovered, and many of these could be facing extinction.
C It is important to develop a picture of the diversity of life on Earth now so that comparisons can be made in the future and trends identified. However, it is not necessary to observe every single type of organism in an area to obtain a snapshot of the health of the ecosystem. In many habitats, there are species that are particularly susceptible to changing conditions, and these can be used as indicator species.
D In the media, it is usually large, charismatic animals such as pandas, elephants, tigers and whales that receive all the attention when a loss of biodiversity is discussed. However, animals or plants much lower down the food chain are often the organisms that are vital for preserving habitats and, in the process, saving the more glamorous species. These are known as keystone species.
E By studying the complex feeding relationships within habitats, scientists can identify species that have a particularly important impact on the environment. For example, members of the fig family are the staple food for hundreds of different species in many countries and are so important that scientists sometimes call figs "jungle burgers".
A wide range of animals, from tiny insects to birds and large mammals, feed on everything from the trees’ bark and leaves to their flowers and fruits. Many fig species have very specific pollinators. There are several dozen species of fig tree in Costa Rica, and a different type of wasp has evolved to pollinate each one.
Chris Lyle of the Natural History Museum in London, who is also involved in the Global Taxonomy Initiative of the Convention on Biological Diversity, points out that if fig trees are affected by global warming, pollution, disease or another catastrophe, the loss of biodiversity will be enormous.
F Similarly, sea otters play a major role in the survival of giant kelp forests along the coasts of California and Alaska. These "marine rainforests" provide a home for a wide range of other species. The kelp itself is the main food of purple and red sea urchins, and the urchins are eaten by predators, particularly sea otters.
Sea otters detach an urchin from the seabed, float to the surface and lie on their backs with the urchin shell on their stomachs, smashing it open with a stone before eating the contents. Urchins that are not eaten tend to remain in rock crevices to avoid predators. This allows the kelp to grow, sometimes by many centimetres in a day.
As the forests form, pieces of kelp break off and fall to the bottom, providing food for the urchins in their crevices. The sea otters thrive by hunting sea urchins in the kelp, while many other fish and invertebrates live among the fronds.
Problems begin when the sea otter population declines. As large predators, their numbers are relatively small, so disease or human hunters can eliminate them. The result is that the sea urchin population grows unchecked, and the animals roam the seafloor eating young kelp fronds. This keeps the kelp very short and prevents forests from developing, which has an enormous impact on biodiversity.
G Conversely, keystone species can also be dangerous alien species: they can cause severe damage if they end up in the wrong ecosystem. The cactus moth, whose caterpillar is a voracious eater of prickly pear, was introduced into Australia to control rampant cacti.
It was so successful that someone thought it would be a good idea to introduce it to Caribbean islands that had the same problem. It solved the cactus problem, but unfortunately some of the moths have now reached the US mainland, carried by winds and in tourists’ luggage, where they are devastating the native cactus populations of Florida.
H Organisations such as the Convention on Biological Diversity work with groups including the UN, governments and scientists to raise awareness and fund research. A number of major international meetings, including the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, have set targets for governments around the world to slow the loss of biodiversity.
The CITES meeting in Santiago also added several more names to its list of endangered species for which trade is controlled. However, these agreements will be of limited value if some countries refuse to implement them.
I There is cause for optimism. There seems to be a growing understanding of the need for sustainable agriculture and sustainable tourism to conserve biodiversity. Problems such as illegal logging are being tackled through sustainable forestry programmes, with an emphasis on minimising the use of rainforest hardwoods in the developed world and rigorously replanting whatever trees are harvested.
CITES is playing its part by controlling trade in wood from endangered tree species. In the same way, sustainable farming techniques aim to minimise environmental damage and avoid monoculture.
J Action at a national level often means investing in public education and awareness. Getting ordinary people involved can be very effective. Australia and many European countries are becoming increasingly efficient at recycling much of their domestic waste, preserving natural resources and reducing the use of fossil fuels.
This has a direct effect on biodiversity by minimising pollution, and an indirect effect by reducing the number of greenhouse gases emitted from incinerators and landfill sites. Preserving intact ecosystems for future generations is obviously important, but biodiversity is not an optional extra. Variety may be "the spice of life", but biological variety is also our life-support system.
Questions 14--20
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
14. The term "biodiversity" covers living organisms, their genes and the ecosystems in which they live.
15. Some species have not been researched because scientists believe that studying them is unnecessary.
16. Scientists do not need to study every organism in an area to assess the general health of its ecosystem.
17. Media reports about biodiversity tend to concentrate on well-known animals.
18. The introduction of the cactus moth has had a positive effect on native cactus populations in the United States.
19. The use of rainforest hardwoods has been legally forbidden in several European countries.
20. Sustainable farming experts recommend growing only one crop in each field.
Questions 21--26
Complete the summary below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Protecting Biodiversity
Because media attention tends to focus on large and attractive animals, people may neglect important organisms known as 21. Feeding relationships demonstrate that groups such as the 22 provide food for a large number of other species.
Along parts of the American coast, a decline in sea otters causes an uncontrolled increase in 23. In another case, the introduced 24 successfully controlled cacti in 25, although it later became destructive in a different ecosystem.
At the national level, governments can support conservation by investing in 26 and awareness.
Part 3
NatureWorks Polylactic Acid
NatureWorks Polylactic Acid
A A dozen years ago, scientists at Cargill developed the idea of converting lactic acid made from corn into plastic while examining possible new uses for materials produced through corn wet-milling processes. In the past, several efforts had been made to develop plastics from lactic acid, but with limited success.
Achieving this technological breakthrough did not come easily, but over time the efforts succeeded. A fermentation and distillation process using corn was designed to create a polymer suitable for a broad variety of applications.
B As an agriculturally based firm, Cargill had taken the product as far as it could by 1997. The company needed a partner with access to plastics markets and polymerisation capabilities, and it began discussions with the Dow Chemical Company.
The next step was the formation of the joint venture that created Cargill Dow LLC. Cargill Dow’s product was the world’s first commercially available plastic made from annually renewable resources such as corn.
NatureWorks PLA is a family of packaging polymers--carbon-based molecules--made from non-petroleum-based resources. Ingeo is a family of polymers for fibres made in a similar manner.
C By applying its unique technology to the processing of natural plant sugars, Cargill Dow created a more environmentally friendly material that reaches consumers in clothes, cups, packaging and other products.
Although Cargill Dow is a stand-alone business, it continues to use the agricultural-processing, manufacturing and polymer expertise of its two parent companies to bring the best possible products to market.
D The basic raw materials for PLA are carbon dioxide and water. Growing plants, such as corn, take these building blocks from the atmosphere and soil. They are combined in the plant to make carbohydrates, including sucrose and starch, through a process driven by photosynthesis.
The process for making NatureWorks PLA begins when a renewable resource such as corn is milled, separating starch from the raw material. Unrefined dextrose is then processed from the starch.
E Cargill Dow turns the unrefined dextrose into lactic acid using a fermentation process similar to that used by beer and wine producers. This is the same lactic acid that is used as a food additive and is found in muscle tissue in the human body.
Through a special condensation process, a lactide is formed. The lactide is purified through vacuum distillation and becomes a polymer--the base for NatureWorks PLA--that is ready for use through a solvent-free melting process.
The development of this technology allows the company to "harvest" the carbon that living plants remove from the air through photosynthesis. Carbon is stored in plant starches, which can be broken down into natural plant sugars. The carbon and other elements in these sugars are then used to make NatureWorks PLA.
F NatureWorks PLA fits all disposal systems and is fully compostable in commercial composting facilities. With the proper infrastructure, products made from this polymer can be recycled back into a monomer and reused as a polymer.
At the end of its life cycle, a product made from NatureWorks PLA can therefore be broken down into its simplest parts so that no sign of it remains.
G PLA now actively competes with traditional materials in packaging and fibre applications throughout the world. Based on the technology’s success and promise, Cargill Dow is quickly becoming a major participant in the polymers market.
The new polymer competes directly with petroleum-based materials such as polyester. A wide range of products that vary in molecular weight and crystallinity can be produced, and the combination of PLA’s physical properties makes it suitable for a broad range of fibre and packaging applications.
Fibre and non-woven applications include clothing, fibre filling, blankets and wipes. Packaging applications include packaging films and food and beverage containers.
H NatureWorks PLA polymers are more resistant to oil and grease and provide a better flavour and aroma barrier than existing petroleum-based polymers. Grocery retailers are therefore increasingly using this packaging for fresh foods.
As companies explore this family of polymers, more potential applications are being identified. For example, PLA possesses two properties that are particularly useful for drape fabrics and window furnishings.
Its resistance to ultraviolet light reduces fading in such fabrics. Its refractive index is also low, which means fabrics constructed from these polymers can be made in deep colours without requiring large amounts of dye.
Sportswear manufacturers have also been attracted to the product because it has an inherent ability to take moisture away from the skin. When it is blended with cotton and wool, the result is garments that are lighter and better at absorbing moisture.
I PLA combines inexpensive large-scale fermentation with chemical processing to produce a value-added polymer product that also benefits the environment. The source material for PLA is a natural sugar found in plants such as corn, and using this renewable feedstock provides several environmental benefits.
As an alternative to traditional petroleum-based polymers, the production of PLA uses 20--50 per cent less fossil fuel and releases fewer greenhouse gases than the production of comparable petroleum-based plastic.
Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere when the feedstock is grown and is returned to the earth when the polymer degrades. Because the company uses raw materials that can be regenerated year after year, the product is both cost-competitive and environmentally responsible.
Questions 27--30
Match each statement with the correct option, A--F.
List of Options
A. make products such as clothes
B. produce plastic from plants
C. sell plastic in commercial markets
D. use a fermentation process
E. manufacture drape fabrics
F. package and wrap products
27. Scientists managed to
27
28. Cargill needed a partner that could help it
28
29. NatureWorks PLA is primarily used to
29
30. Ingeo polymers are used to
30
Questions 31--34
Complete the flow chart below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
The Production of Polylactic Acid
| Corn is milled to separate 31. |
| ↓ |
| Unrefined dextrose is produced from the separated material. |
| ↓ |
| A 32 process converts the dextrose into lactic acid. |
| ↓ |
| A special 33 process turns the lactic acid into a lactide. |
| ↓ |
| Vacuum distillation purifies the lactide, which becomes a 34. |
Questions 35--36
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
35. Why is PLA suitable as a material for food packaging?
36. Which use of PLA packaging is specifically mentioned in the passage?
Questions 37--38
Choose TWO letters, A--E.
Which TWO properties make PLA useful for clothing and fabrics?
Questions 39--40
Choose TWO letters, A--E.
Which TWO environmental benefits of PLA are mentioned in the passage?