The Role of Mothers in the Origins of Music

A leading researcher has proposed that the key to understanding the origin of music is in the playful language used between mother and child.

A In a recent lecture Richard Parncutt, a professor of systematic musicology at the University of Graz, Austria, discussed the idea that music originated from ‘motherese’ -- the playful voices mothers adopt when speaking to infants and toddlers. As the theory goes, increased human brain sizes caused by evolutionary changes occurring between one and two million years ago resulted in earlier births, more fragile infants and a critical need for stronger relationships between mothers and their newborns. According to Parncutt, ‘motherese’ arose as a way to strengthen this maternal bond and to help infants survive. ‘If babies were born earlier, it is clear they would need better care in order to survive … this would involve the baby communicating its state and needs more clearly to the mother,’ he says. Parncutt adds that this makes it very likely that motherese evolved as an evolutionary adaptation, and that there is a large amount of modern empirical evidence for the musical nature of motherese.

B Although it might appear amusing or even nonsensical on the surface, ‘motherese’ is actually a sophisticated form of communication. It contains structural musical elements such as rhythm and melody, and codes that babies and mothers understand. It also contains cross cultural similarities with regard to the physical gestures and movements it incorporates, an important consideration when examining the origin of music. ‘The sonic-gestural vocabulary tells both mother and infant about the current physical and emotional state of the other, as well as the current state of play between them,’ says Parncutt. ‘Here, emotions such as surprise and disappointment are learned for the first time in a social and musical context. It is about survival in that it motivates the mother to care for the infant and gives her information about the infant’s needs.’ For example, mothers can understand when their babies are tired or hungry. Motherese also helps infants to acquire language.

C Parncutt explains that a fetus begins hearing nearly four months before birth, as it regularly hears its mother’s voice, heartbeat, and digestive sounds all of which provide information about its mother’s emotional state. After birth, the baby recognises these sound patterns and its mother’s correlating mood. Gary McPherson, head of the University of Melbourne’s School of Music, reiterates the importance of this prenatal association, saying that music is the very first form of intelligence to reveal itself even before birth.

D However, there are several competing theories about the origins of music. Parncutt developed a grading system to assess these theories, the objective being to measure their validity against a set of criteria which he called ‘universal aspects of music’. Some key aspects are that music is meaningful and can be used to communicate information; it involves movement and gesture; it has structural components like rhythm, melody, repetition and form; it performs certain social functions; music is emotional and can influence behaviour; it is intentional, requiring mental sophistication; and it is intrinsically spiritual.

E According to Parncutt, a strong theory about the origin of music should be able to explain or align with all the universal features he outlined. Using these standards, he reviewed several existing theories. One theory proposes that musical ability is innate in animal behavior, such as birds singing during courtship rituals or wolves howling to establish their territory. Others argue that music exists to bring us pleasure, similarly to the effect of a drug; some believe it evolved as a method for men to attract sexual partners, with the most talented musicians earning the best mates; and another idea is that music developed as a tool for play, helping children learn and gain other non-musical skills.

F Although Parncutt’s research has not invalidated these theories, it proposes that ‘motherese’ offers the most comprehensive explanation for the origins of music. Parncutt states, ‘I believe it can explain nearly every universal characteristic of music, including both its similarities to language and its unique aspects,’ describing it as the ‘least speculative’ theory among those considered. McPherson adds, ‘In conducting this research, he confronts existing theories directly. He does not simply accept a popular idea; instead, he critically examines the entire field. By evaluating all these theories, he constructs a compelling argument. It’s an excellent contribution’.

G Despite the importance of Parncutt’s work, the evidence supporting the ‘motherese’ theory remains inconclusive, and some specialists question whether the question of music’s origin can ever be definitively answered. Sandra Trehub, a psychology professor at the University of Toronto Mississauga who has extensively studied ‘motherese,’ warns, ‘Many ideas about music’s beginnings are speculative -- quite wild speculations at that. Vocal music, like speech, leaves no physical traces that could help us determine its ancient origins… None of these theories are provable’.

H Another point of critique is that the ‘motherese’ theory does not explain the origins of non-vocal music. Neil McLachlan, a music psychologist at the University of Melbourne, highlights the role of music in work and warfare traditions. He states, ‘Music has served many social functions. It’s very likely that some musical behaviors evolved from needs unrelated to learning. Music was used to motivate marching armies in war and to distract them from fear of danger. In work, music could help distract from monotonous tasks.’ According to McLachlan, the origins of music are probably multiple and span a historical timeline. ‘Motherese might represent the earliest source, but it does not cover all music -- especially non-vocal forms like rhythmic entertainment.’ Parncutt himself concedes the evidence is not definitive and that multiple factors may have influenced music’s origin. However, he maintains that ‘motherese’ currently provides the most thorough explanation, particularly due to its connection with spirituality.

Termite Mounds

Could the vast towers of mud constructed by insects in sub-Saharan Africa hold the key to our energy-efficient building of the future?

1 To most of us, termites are destructive insects which can cause damage on a devastating scale. But according to Dr Rupert Soar of Loughborough University’s School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, these pests may serve a useful purpose for us after all. His multi-disciplinary team of British and American engineers and biologists have set out to investigate the giant mounds built by termites in Namibia, in sub-Saharan Africa, as part of the most extensive study of these structures ever taken.

2 Termite mounds are impressive for their size alone; typically they are three metres high, and some as tall as eight metres by found. They also reach far into the earth, where the insects ‘mine’ their building materials, carefully selecting each grain of sand they use. The termite’s nest is contained in the central cavity of the mound, safely protected from the harsh environment outside. The mound itself is formed of an intricate lattice of tunnels, which split into smaller and smaller tunnels, much like a person’s blood vessels.

3 This complex system of tunnels draws in air from the outside, capturing wind energy to drive it through the mound. It also serves to expel spent respiratory gases from the nest to prevent the termites from suffocating. So ensuring them a continuous provision of fresh, breathable air. So detailed is the design that the nest stays within three degrees of a constant temperature, despite variations on the outside of up to 50 °C, from blistering heat in the daytime to below freezing on the coldest nights. The mound also automatically regulates moisture in the air, by means of best its underground ‘cellar’, and evaporation from the top of the mound. Some colonies even had ‘chimneys’ at a height of 20m to control moisture loss in the hottest regions of sub-Saharan Africa.

4 Furthermore, the termites have evolved in such a way as to outsource some of their biological functions. Part of their digestive process is carried out by a fungus, which they farm inside the mound. This fungus, which is found nowhere else on earth, thrives in the constant and optimum environment of the mound. The termites feed the fungus with slightly chewed wood pulp, which the fungus then breaks down into a digestible sugary food to provide the insects with energy, and cellulose which they use for building. And, although the termites must generate waste, none ever leaves the structure, indicating that there is also some kind of internal waste-recycling system.

5 Scientists are so excited by the mounds that they have labelled them a ‘super organism’ because, in Soar’s word. ‘They dance on the edge of what we would perceive to cool down, or if you’re too cold you need to thrive: that’s called homeostasis. What the termites have done is to move homeostatic function away from their body, into the structure in which they live.’ As more information comes to light about the unique features of termite mounds, we may ultimately need to redefine our understanding of what constitutes a ‘living’ organism.

6 To reveal the structure of the mounds, Soar’s team begins by filling and covering their plaster of Paris, a chalky white paste based on the mineral gypsum, which becomes rock-solid when dry. The researcher’s team carves the plaster of Paris into half-millimetre-thick slices, and photograph them sequentially. Once the pictures are digitally scanned, computer technology is able to recreate complex three-dimensional images of the mounds. These models have enabled the team to map termite architecture at a level of detail never before attained.

7 Soar hopes that the models will explain how termite mounds create a self-regulating living environment which manages to respond to changing internal and external conditions without drawing on any outside source of power. If they do, the findings could be invaluable in informing future architectural design, and could inspire buildings that are self-sufficient, environmentally, and cheap to run. ‘As we approach a world of climate change, we need temperatures to rise,’ he explains. ‘There will not be enough fuel to drive air conditioners around the world.’ ‘It is hoped,’ says Soar, ‘that the findings will provide clues that aid the ultimate development of new kinds of human habitats, suitable for a variety of arid, hostile environments not only on the earth but maybe one day on the moon and beyond.'